Historical Institutionalism Summary and Analysis

Historical Institutionalism Summary and Analysis Introduction In this essay I will argue that Historical Institutionalism offers a superior and more comprehensive view of change than the Sociological Institutionalism or Rational Choice Institutionalism alternatives. Is important to point out that the definition of change considered for this essay is the intended or unintended consequences of a strategic set of actions taken in a precise and determined time and space, in contrast to other possibilities in the same context (Hay and Wincott, 1998). To do this I will compare the competing views of Institutional Change that are presented in Rational Choice Institutionalism, Sociological Institutionalism and Historical Institutionalism to unveil that the view of the latter is more comprehensive than the other two due to the wide scope of the concept of change and the versatility provided by the cultural and calculus approaches included in the branch. I will examine the proposal of Rational Choice Institutionalism, first. Describe shortly what this new form of Institutionalism introduces to the discipline and evaluate what the scholars of this form consider that institutional change is. Then I will show how and why their vision is narrowed and cannot really explain most of institutional change on its own. Secondly, I will analyse Sociological Institutionalism, mentioning the elemental characteristics that separates it from the other two forms of New Institutionalism. Following I will explain the engine of change for sociological institutionalism and I will point out why there is not enough comprehension of how context affect the outcomes and why it is inherently contradictory by denying Rational Choice assumptions, yet assuming rationality in the way organizations operate. Lastly I will describe Historical Institutionalism to recognize their originality and explain the ambidexterity it possesses between Rational Choice Institutionalism and Sociological Institutionalism. I will clarify the calculus and cultural approaches to understand how they bring concepts of the two previously mentioned into the historical study. On the last part I will explain why is the analysis of change superior under the branch of Historical Institutionalism than both Sociological and Rational Choice Institutionalisms by pointing out how scholars on the first one have surpassed the critiques and flaws of the other two. Rational Choice Rational Choice Institutionalism is predicated on the idea that the individuals composing a society seek utility maximization (Tsebelis, 1990). In a process of rational negotiation, individuals consciously enact the rules determined to act upon every member of society. In that way, they choose rationally the characteristics that will shape their institutions (Shepsle, 1989). In other words, institutions are, for this approach, a set of rules, agreed by society in order to set the correct behaviour under certain circumstances and in specific situations. This way conflicts are prevented and the social costs of collective actions are contained and reduced (Hall and Taylor, 1996). To understand more about this current, we need to point out that the genesis of the Rational Choice Institutionalism is the study of congressional behaviour in the United States as a way of expanding classical Rational Choice into matter that did not fit the models provided up until then by the discipline, like stability of congressional outcomes (Hall and Taylor, 1996). When referring to change in institutions, Rational Choice does not offer much explanation or even -some would argue- does not consider the existence of a possibility that institutions might change. The term renegotiation-proof must come into consideration now. This concept defines the situation where none of the actors with considerable power to change an institution are willing to do so. Since the core affirmation is that institutions are selected rationally by rational thinkers that seek to optimize their benefit within society, it is logical to understand that there was a previous negotiation process prior to the adoption of such institution, in which all the related subjects to the institution where discussed and approved by the individuals.   According to Selten (1975) an institution must be the proof of renegotiation since that particular and central characteristic provides society with the consistency that precludes any deviation of the expected behaviour, therefore eli minating the cost of instability. Since the utility and effectiveness of institutions is locked to its capability to regulate the behaviour of the members of society, changes would bring instability, confusion and unexpected set of affairs that would increase social costs. It is, thusly, understood that one of the main duties of the state and the higher governmental apparatus is to maintain the institutional arrangement among the individuals, utilizing the processes of cooperation and socialization, (i.e. education) to inculcate this and minimize the virtual perception that institution do not serve the common good (Seznick, 1949; Lipset and Rokkan, 1967; Eisenstadt and Rokkan, 1973; Widavsky, 1987; Sunstein, 1990; Greber and Jackson, 1993 in March and Olsen, 1996). Instead of changing institutions, according to Rational Choice, it is expected that institution, when faced to different context from which it emerged, apply a pre-arranged framework that can support the inclusion of the new ideas and perceptions of the society but keeping the fundamental attributes of the institution itself. Therefore we may say that beforehand, institutions provide a plan of change that is intrinsic to the institution itself, preventing the transition from one to the other but not impeding the transformation of the original one, meaning that this variations are included in the starting vision of the institution (Shepsle, 1989) In other words, institutional change would only consist of institutions following the pre-set plan. For this reason, it is my consideration that the Rational Choice Institutionalism concept of change, should be replaced and referred more precisely as Institutional Evolution since it does not contemplate the substitution of one institution for another nor a transformation that suits better for reality or for the societys need, rather than the morphology of the existing ones according to the original projection. In brief, institutions do not really want to change, those who can change it rather reaffirm it through education to avoid the costs of uncertainty and re-adaptation. Therefore, we can state that Rational Choice Institutionalism studies the ways in which an institution is reinforced and reproduced within the members of a state, by sustaining the idea that spontaneous change or diversity has more cons than pros. Also it is comprehended in this argument the idea that a functional society works better with a faulty institution than without institutions. On the other hand, Rational Choice Institutionalism face the undeniable modification of an institution, it is assumed by this view that all transformation occur within the evolutionary plan of an institution, so that it is not viewed as a change, rather than a natural development through time. And, more importantly, departing from the point that institutions are rationally constructed for the benefit of an organised society, one might al so ask, as a valid criticism, cui bono from this arrangement. Sociological Institutionalism The second current of the new institutionalism is the one that arose from organizational theory in the field of sociology. Since the work of Weber, the sociologists turn their attention to the bureaucracies that shaped structures in different societies. Whether that was on state level, private enterprises, educational organizations, etc. Later in the 1970s, the need to separate those who study organizations from those focused on culture related analysis was explicit. But opposing to this, the new form of institutionalism arrived. It stated that the way bureaucracies where organized was not predicated on the premise of the greater efficiency, but they were often shaped to its core by the particular culture surrounding the structure in question. They found that this mandatory resemblance to the cultural identity was, in that way, in order to secure and support the complex process of cultural transmission. From this perspective, we can say that it seeks to answer the question of why do certain organizations take a particular shape and form (Hall and Taylor, 1996). Sociological Institutionalism is concerned with the legitimacy of organizations and bureaucracy. This branch of institutionalism considers that legitimate institutions get bureaucratized essentially following the norms that culture imposes. That is to say, institutions are shaped by culture, to the point that it is difficult to find two with a perfect resemblance since they must be adapted to the context in which they are reproduced or take place. Although certain degree of affinity can be found, for example, in the education systems of different countries, which researchers of this form of new institutionalism call isomorphism. If it is so that culture is the ultimate determinant of the shape of organizations and the structures of institutions, then there would be no room in this current for this type of isomorphism, but said concept is cleverly explained by the natural similarity of the needs of every human community in the world. Since we all have the same basic needs, and advance s in those specific areas have been done to make them more efficient, it is logical to think that structures in some degree will copy a functioning model (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). The most important factor for a social behaviour to be transformed into an institution and ultimately bureaucratized is the legitimacy gained among the actors of the society (Finnemore, 1996). The State is considered to be the ultimate example of such phenomenon. Finnemore (1996) argues that institutions are constantly challenged because of the contradictions within the dominant cultural norms, pointing at their constant need to refresh and renew their legitimacy to ensure endurance. In this idea lies the concept of institutional change according to the sociological discipline. They argue that organizations often adopt and promote new institutional practices, leaving aside the rational concern of efficiency and cost reduction, to increase the legitimacy of such organization (Hall and Taylor, 1996). Ironically, though, following Finnemore (1996), institutionalized bureaucracies are rationally substituted for other institutionalized bureaucracies for reasons that go against a rational scope. As for my opinion, sociological institutionalism does not really focuses on explaining the change in institutions but rather excuses the fact that institutions change by saying it is all a matter of the legitimacy of the organizations trying to stand the test of time. If it is so, that organizations have the power to shape the structural context of behaviour in such way as to regulate what is considered wrong and right behaviour, then there would be little stopping organizations from assuming total control of society they indirectly direct. Further, it is clear that they deny strongly the grand rational assumption that individuals act rationally (which I consider an appropriate critique) upheld by Rational Choice Institutionalism, yet they reinforce with the same effervescence the rational claim that all organizations act rationally in pursue of their interest moulding institutions accordingly. Finally, for a branch of new institutionalism that claims that context is the key concept in the development and understanding of the institutions, saying that change is only promoted by organizations, is undermining the possibilities of cultural diversity, as proven recently by the Arab Spring or , not so recently, the communist revolutions on the beginning of the 20th century. Historical Institutionalism Since the 1990s there has been an increment in the importance that ideas, economic interest and political institutions have and the relation between them. This has led to a great transformation of the historical institutionalism school trying to explain political outcomes (Bà ©land, 2005). Historical Institutionalism took great influence from structural functionalist, but for a change, they reject the idea that psychological, cultural, social or any individual trait could be extrapolated as a general characteristic of the system that contains them. Instead they suggest that institutional organizations shape the behaviour of the collective, thus generating political outcomes (Hall and Taylor, 1996). In this analysis they include the factor of rationality of the individual and the organizations but under an historical interpretation of the culture in order to decode the interpretation of both the norm and what was considered rational in such a context (Ferejohn, 1991; Thelen, 1999). This way, Historical Institutionalism has a pivotal approach that comprehends and exceed the previously two analysed (Hall and Taylor, 1996), specifically when one analyses the cultural and calculus approaches. Hay and Wincott (1998) argue that Hall and Taylor (1996) are trying to propose a dialogue between the Sociological Institutionalism and the Rational Choice Institutionalism by incorporating the cultural and calculus approaches to the Historical branch. The calculus approach assume that in every period of time, individuals tend to act strategically to maximize their gain, and institution provide a frame to make it easier to predict and limit the set of actions possible to take place. Now the Historical Institutionalism part in this approach is that the possibilities are reviewed into the historical context surrounding the decisions taken. The cultural approach contrast the calculus without denying it, analysing the degree on which individuals leave aside the rational decision, and lean to familiar structures or established routines. But for that it is necessary to comprehend the historical and contextual rational decision that was left aside and the familiar structures and established routines of such individual in that precise time (Hall and Taylor, 1996). The main contribution of Historical Institutionalism leads logically to the concept of path dependency. This is the assumption that the same processes can generate different results on different places because there are no two equal circumstances, an assumption that can be considered axiomatic, and therefor problematic (Hall and Taylor, 1996). One way to look at it is that the specific order in which things occur affect how they occur (Hay and Wincott, 1998; Fioretos, 2011). Following Fioretos (2011) the particular timing and sequence in which a phenomenon takes place contributes to four characteristics that remark the importance of context: i) unpredictability, by which it is expected that outcomes on similar events vary in great manner; ii) inflexibility, the idea that as more time passes, it gets harder to reverse the effects of such event; iii) nonergodicity, the probability that this effects can stand the test of time; iv) inefficiencies, the fact that abandoned ideas and altern atives might have produced more efficient outcomes but are out of the possibility range anymore. Another concept that is essential to path dependence is historical inefficiency (Fioretos, 2011: 376). The idea that the specific consequences of the path dependence of one precise experience would make institutional alternatives designed in a different context, far more likely to fail, despite of the fact that analysis of utility models may indicate their superior expected performance (Fioretos, 2011). The concept of path dependence, although taken from a blend between Rational Choice Institutionalism and Sociological Institutionalism, particularly from and formed inside the original contributions of Historical Institutionalism renders the first two approaches out-dated and unhelpful when talking about institutional change (Thelen, 1999). Change is comprehended as the outcomes, whether they are intended or not, of a set of strategic actions that are conceived inside the context of institutions in a definite time and space that provided the conditions needed to favour certain choices over others (Hay and Wincott, 1998). And that exact analysis is only provided by Historical Institutionalism thanks to the incorporation of calculus approach and cultural approach and path dependence. Since the concept of path dependence tell us that there is no way in which we can calculate with certainty what will be the overall cost of choosing an option over another when undergoing institutional change, considering unknown factors may intervene and affect the outcome, there is no way of formulating a model that can apply to any situation without risking a mayor margin of error (Harty, 2005). By leaving aside grand generalizations Historical Institutionalism can easily surpass the barriers of Sociological Institutionalism and Rational Choice, of assuming that organizations only use institutional change to reinforce their legitimacy and that every institutional change made in any context must fall into a rational choice, respectively. Moreover by not denying rationality, Historical Institutionalism does not fall in the contradiction of using Rational Choice to understand the behaviour of organizations or individuals, such as the case of the Sociological branch. Lastly, in my opinion, Historical Institutionalism is stronger than Rational Choice also, because it contemplates real change on institutions and not merely the evolution of them, since they hold no delusion of a supposed pre-calculated plan by institutions to transform within in order to avoid undergo real change. And is stronger than Sociological Institutionalism, also, as a result of giving the deserved and necessary level of importance to context as a determinant of the outcome and structure of the institutional change process. Conclusions We have showed that Historical Institutionalism has a more precise and deeper view of institutional change than the other forms of new institutionalism, Rational Choice Institutionalism and Sociological Institutionalism. I have compared the concept of change in the three branches, and found that Rational Choice Institutionalism and Sociological Institutionalism have a reduced view of what composes and provokes change leading to unsatisfactory conclusions that leave aside important parts of the reality without encompassing the inputs of one another. Rational Choice Institutionalism, due to its genesis, has defined a very limited scope, and only considers change to happen within and according to the institutions plan, assuming that in every step of the way, rationality is a perfect process undergone by every individual and actor in the society. Historical Institutionalism embraces a wider view of what constitutes change, enabling it to study a much substantial range of political situations that would be left out by Rational Choice. Moreover Historical Institutionalism goes as deep as to question what seemed like a rational choice in the context of analysis, providing with a view that does not deny rationality but also, does not consider it to be fixed and static. Sociological Institutionalism denies the absolute rationality that is assumed by Rational Choice Institutionalism. Scholars in this branch understand institutional change as the tool that organizations use to endure in time. They suggest that organizations are the ones that promote and seek institutional changes that fit their own maximization of benefits, but by doing this; they make use of the principle that they so firmly oppose from Rational Choice. Sociological Institutionalism only analyses context as a force that shapes the form of the institutions upheld by a society. Historical Institutionalism gives much more importance to context, saying it can determine not only the particular shape of an institution, but also argues that we should take into consideration the values and possibilities provided by the context. It also calls upon the importance of context in the elaboration of the concept path dependency under which it is understood that due to the specifics of some situatio ns, the same process may have different results. Lastly, since Historical Institutionalism does not deny rationality of actors, rather than question what rationality is, it does not fall on the contradiction that we saw on Sociological Institutionalism. We have seen how Historical Institutionalism, thanks to the calculus and cultural approaches and the path dependency concept is a synthesis of the Rational Choice Institutionalism and Sociological Institutionalism. Historical Institutionalism is capable of analysing much deeper into political phenomena by bringing together concepts of both and stating that results may not replicate in the exact same way due to the differences in context. Therefore not intending to push grand assumptions or create laws on studies and in that what being able to widen the range of situations to study. Bibliography Bà ©land, D. (2005) Ideas, Interest, and Institutions: Historical Institutionalism Revisited in Lecours, A. New Institutionalisms. Theory and Analysis, University of Toront-o Press. 29-50 Ferejohn, J. (1991) Rationality and interpretation: Parliamentary elections in early Stuart England. In Monroe K, The economic approach to politics Harper-Collins, 279-305. Finnemore, M. (1996) Norms, culture, and world politics: Insights from sociologys institutionalism, International Organization, vol. 50, no. 2, 325-47. Fioretos, O. (2011) Historical Institutionalism in Intenational Relations, International Organizations, 65, 367-99. Hall, P. and R.C.R. Taylor (1996) Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms. Political Studies, Vol. 44(5): 936 57. Harty, S. (2005) Theorising Institutional Change in Lecours, A. New Institutionalisms. Theory and Analysis, University of Toronto Press. 51-79 Hay, C. and Wincott, D. (1998) Structure, Agency, Historical Institutionalism, Political Studies, Vol. 46: 951-57. March, J.G. and Olsen, J.P. (1996) Institutional Perspectives on Political Institutions, Governance, 9 (3), 247-64. Meyer, J.W. Rowan, B. (1977) Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 83, no. 2, 340-63. Selten, R. (1975) A Reexamination on the Perfectness Concept for Equilibrium Points in Extensive games International Journal of Game Theory, 4, 25-55. Shepsle, K.A. (1989) Studying Institutions: Some Lessons from the Rational Choice Approach, Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1 (2), 131-47. Thelen, K. (1999) Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics, Annual Review of Political Science, 2, 369-404. Tsebelis, G. (1990) Nested Games: Rational Choice in Comparative Politics, University of California Press.   Ã‚  

Similar Plot of Muder Mysteries :: Papers

Similar Plot of Muder Mysteries The structures of the two stories are very different, with The Speckled Band story unfolding in chronological order, finding out the murderer right at the end, however in the Lamb to the Slaughter, the murderer is known at the beginning of the story. The two stories are seen from two different points of view, first-person narratorinTheSpeckled Band as Dr Watson acharacter within the story and therefore limited in understanding and the all-knowingthird-person narratoror omniscient in Lamb to the Slaughter as the narrator stands outside the story itself and guide the reader's understanding of characters and the significance of their story. Most murder mysteries have the typical victims, murderers, and detectives, this is especially true in the older murder mysteries by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The Speckled Band has a typical detective, the famous detective being Sherlock Holmes with his deer stalker hat and pipe always deep in thought about the investigation "his arms folded, his hat pulled down over his eyes, and his chin sunk upon his breast, buried in the deepest thought". But in the Lamb to the Slaughter the detectives are so foolish and naives, a complete contrast to Sherlock Holmes. Sherlock Holmes comes across as a typical fictional detective. In addition Miss Stoner, in The Speckled Band is a typical victim, vulnerable, anxious, weak and scared. She say's " It is not cold which makes me shiver", she was worried for her life. This line grips the reader and we can sense that something sinister is about to happen. Also in The Speckled Band, Dr Roylott, is the evil, plotting, devious, fictional murderer, this character was portrayed in most murder mysteries stories written in the late 19 century. The Speckled Band was written in 1892. In the Lamb to the Slaughter we had no idea who the murderer and victim were going to be until the murder had been committed, in fact you might of thought the roles would have been reversed once reading the first few pages. The detectives in the story are portrayed as

The Franks

The Franks is about a group of loosely related Germanic ‘barbarian' tribes that from the third to eighth centuries CE would occupy, and eventually conquer and settle most of the Western Roman province of Gaul which would later come to be known as France, or â€Å"Frankland†. The Franks are portrayed in this documentary as a ‘plague' to Rome, but one group the Salians to the north of the Rhine River, were actually quite assimilated to Roman Culture and even ided as a buffer between Rome and other invading Barbarians.The Franks were first recognized as an â€Å"auxiliary' people by the Romans during the reign of Merovech whom is best remembered for being the first leader of the Salian Franks and the original founder of the royal line. His triumph over the Huns to the west and their neighboring barbarians, the Ostrogoths at Chalons, Gaul in 451 CE recognized his great power, and also paved the way for his son Childeric l. Childeric established ajor territorial conque st during his reign, triumphing over the invading Visigoths to the south, and the Saxons to the southwest in aid to the Romans.His role as a Barbarian ally to the Romans played an important role in The Franks further expanse into Gaul. Childeric continued to rein for twenty-four years until his death in 481 CE, at which time his son Clovis I took control. Clovis I was regarded as the most influential ruler of the Salians, and the â€Å"real† founder of the Merovingian Dynasty; the ame of which was derived from his grandfather Merovech.Clovis was a Pagan like many Franks were at his time, but is allegedly known for having converted to Orthodox (Catholic) Christianity to gain the politic support of the Gallo-Romans (Christians), though it may be argued his wife was the reason for his conversion. Clovis was considered ‘ruthless' in his tactics to gain complete control of Gaul by murdering every potential rival Frankish leader, even those in his own family.This omination in bloodshed across Gaul is what gives the Frankish people their true identity reinventing them not as barbarians, but as The Franks. Gaul becomes known as Frankia, and later France, and the legacy of a people and their Dynasty which will last for nearly two-hundred years setting the framework for Western Europe.

Depression Among The Homeless Community - 1348 Words

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Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun - 1850 Words

In Lorraine Hansberry’s â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† (1959), she reveals the life of the Youngers family. In doing so, there surfaces a detrimental ideology that destroys the family financially and in their overall happiness. In Act II Scene I, Walter, the father figure of the family, says, â€Å"Why? You want to know why? Cause we all tied up in a race of people that don t know how to do nothing but moan, pray and have babies!† (Hansberry 532). 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Mama and Walter are the most diverse to analyze in terms of layeredRead MoreAnalysis Of Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun1092 Words   |  5 PagesLorraine Hansberry was an African-American female playwright born in Chicago in 1930. Hansberry’s play, A Raisin in the Sun, has won awards such as the New York Drama Critics’ Circle Award for Best Play and is loosely based on events involving her own family. This play portrays a poor African-American family of five known as the Younger Family, living on the South side of Chicago in a run-down one-bedroom apartment, Its furnishings are typical and undistinguished and their primary feature now isRead More Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun Essay552 Words   |  3 Pages But not everyone will achieve their dreams and some, because of sad circumstances lose their grip on their dream and fall into a state of disappointment. 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She moved from the south to the north to better herself and her lifeRead MoreEssay on Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun1190 Words   |  5 Pages Lorraine Hansberry’s novel, A Raisin in the Sun, revolves around a middle-class African-American family, struggling during World War II. By reading about the Younger’s true to life experiences, one learns many important life lessons. One of the aforementioned would be that a person should always put family’s needs before their own. There are many examples of this throughout the novel. Just a few of these would be the example of Ruth and her unborn baby, Walter regaining the respect of his familyRead More Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun Essay3889 Words   |  16 PagesLorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun A dream deferred is a dream put off to another time, much like this essay. But unlike dreams sometimes, this essay will get fulfilled and done with. Each character from A Raisin in the Sun had a deferred dream, even little Travis although his dream was not directly stated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Their dreams become dried up like a raisin in the sun. Not just dreams are dried up though; Walter Lee and Ruth’s marriage became dried up also. Their marriage was no longerRead MoreLorraine Hansberrys Raisin In The Sun1883 Words   |  8 PagesOver 5 decades ago Lorraine Hansberry wrote a play, Raisin in the Sun, about a family living in Chicago  during the Civil Rights Era.   The play illustrates a realistic portrait of African-American life during the late 50’s early 60’s.   The family comes into some money as a result of the Patriarch of the family passing away.   This insurance check presents an opportunity for each member of the family to realize their dreams in order to escape the ghetto.   However, each family member/character dealsRead MoreEssay Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin In The Sun2551 Words   |  11 PagesRaisin in the Sun In the story â€Å"Raisin in the Sun† there is basically a group of characters all in one family living in a small apartment with everyday their love dying a little more. The family is black and through the whole play it shows how segregation was played in the 1950s. Ruth Younger is a wife of Walter Younger and a Mother of Travis Younger who is living in a small living assortment and just wants to get away and move on to something bigger and something more independent. Now with herRead MoreThe American Nightmare: Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun1011 Words   |  5 PagesIn Lorraine Hansberry’s â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun†, she uses the African American Younger family as a representation of the entire race’s struggle for the American Dream. America has always had slogans such as â€Å"the land of the free† and â€Å"liberty and justice for all†. The Younger family is finding out, like generations before them, the American Dream i sn’t at all what it seems if you’re black. The family eagerly awaits the insurance check from the death of their father, while living a life of constant

Egypt is a republic in northeastern area of Africa it was...

Egypt is a republic in northeastern area of Africa; it was known as the United Arab Republic until 1971. Egypt is an ancient civilization that grew from 2600 to 30 BC. Egypts economic range includes involvement with mainly tourism, construction and manufacturing. Currently, Egypt’s economy is not doing well. Because of the revolution in 2011, the Egyptian economy has gone from bad to worse. The country’s unemployment is still increasing which is causing the budget deficit. Job creation is virtually impossible, and the Egyptian pound has lost majority of its value. To make problems worse, the general lack of security in the country has increased. All of these issues have a negative effect on the country. For example, the soaring†¦show more content†¦Moreover, the unemployment also increases because of the revolution due to many employees going on strike and not working. From February 11, 2011 to February 11, 2013, the unemployment rate has increase by 1.4% (Cent ral Bank of Egypt.) At this rate the country’s unemployment will just keep decreasing if something is not done. Currently, Egypt’s economic has been taking a number of harmful tolls from many different factors. For example, underground dollar trade and political instability has been reported to effect Egypt’s economic in a negative way. The underground dollar trade causes a negative effect because According to Middle East Online website, â€Å"money is sought on Cairos black market and currency traders at banks say they havent been able to meet their clients demand through official channels.† This makes it difficult for people to get the proper loan they may need to get a home or car. The black markets are worsening the economy. This has been a problem in the past when Egypt was struck with a thriving black market during economic insecurity in 2003. Black markets are affecting the banks of Egypt. Banks are forced to trade dollars in fixed ranges around th e central banks sale cut-off prices for interbank, commercial and retail transactions, giving rights sizable encouragement over authorized exchange charges. Although Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak stepped down, Egypt’sShow MoreRelatedEssay about The Kingdom of Nubia: Modern Day Sudan939 Words   |  4 PagesSudan, in ancient times was the kingdom of Nubia. Nubia was Egyptian, ruled around 2600 B.C. Sudan has had quite a diverse and interesting past shaping the country to what we now call Sudan. From the civil, war of the National Islamic Front and the People’s Liberation Army to the discovery of oil. Southern and Northern Sudan is rich in history, culture, and population diversity. I picked Sudan to learn more about my friends, and to put meaning to what they went through as United State refugees. We willRead MoreGenocide : The Worst Crimes Against Humanity And It Still Continues Today2115 Words   |  9 Pageshistorical roots, stereotypes and prejudices can cultiv ate over centuries. One of the top genocides of the 20th century was the genocide in Cambodia says an article entitled â€Å"Cambodian Genocide.† The Cambodian genocide was an attempt to make all of the peasant farms to be controlled by â€Å"Pol Pot† or the Khmer Rouge party leader. In three short years over 25% of the population was taken out due to this devastation. Cambodia is less than half of the size of California and they gained their independenceRead MoreCoca Cola Company Analysis7501 Words   |  31 PagesCoca-Cola Company is an American multinational beverage corporation and manufacturer, retailer and marketer of non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups. The company is best known for its flagship product Coca-Cola, invented in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton in Columbus, Georgia. The Coca-Cola formula and brand was bought in 1889 by Asa Candler who incorporated The Coca-Cola Company in 1892. Besides its namesake Coca-Cola beverage, Coca-Cola currently offers more than 500 brands in overRead MoreA Summary On The Children Cheetah 10031 Words   |  41 Pages(Schreber, 1775) Subspecies A. j. jubatus A. j. raineyii A. j. soemmeringii A. j. hecki A. j. venaticus Cheetah range - 2.png The range of the cheetah The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a large feline (family Felidae, subfamily Felinae) inhabiting most of Africa and parts of Iran. It is the only extant member of the genus Acinonyx. The cheetah can run faster than any other land animal— as fast as 110 to 120 km/h (68 to 75 mph)[3][4][5][6][7][8] in short bursts covering distances up to 500 m (1,600 ft), andRead MoreCoco Cola18335 Words   |  74 Pages* 3.2  Marketing * 3.3  Channel stuffing settlement * 3.4  Bribery accusations * 3.5  H2NO * 3.6  Tax issues * 3.6.1  Vietnam * 3.7  Nazi Germany and World War II * 3.8  Investments and operations in apartheid South Africa * 3.9  The Bigio family case * 4  Employee issues * 4.1  Racial discrimination * 4.2  Bottling plant murders * 4.2.1  Guatemala * 4.2.2  Colombia * 4.2.3  SINALTRAINAL lawsuit * 4.3  Shareholder resolution attemptRead MoreOne Significant Change T hat Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesAssociation. D421.E77 2010 909.82—dc22 2009052961 The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992 Printed in the United States of America 2 4 6 8 9 7 5 3 1 C ONTENTS Introduction Michael Adas 1 1 World Migration in the Long Twentieth Century †¢ Jose C. Moya and Adam McKeown 9 †¢ 2 Twentieth-Century Urbanization: In Search of an Urban ParadigmRead MoreCobit Framework21120 Words   |  85 PagesAMERICAN SAMOA ARGENTINA ARMENIA AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA BAHAMAS BAHRAIN BANGLADESH BARBADOS BELGIUM BERMUDA BOLIVIA BOTSWANA BRAZIL BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS CANADA CAYMAN ISLANDS CHILE CHINA COLOMBIA COSTA RICA CROATIA CURACAO CYPRUS CZECH REPUBLIC DENMARK DOMINICAN REPUBLIC ECUADOR EGYPT EL SALVADOR ESTONIA FAEROE ISLANDS FIJI FINLAND FRANCE GERMANY GHANA GREECE GUAM GUATEMALA HONDURAS HONG KONG HUNGARY ICELAND INDIA INDONESIA IRAN IRELAND ISRAEL ITALY IVORY COAST JAMAICA JAPAN JORDAN KAZAKHSTAN KENYA KOREA KUWAIT Read MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagesother sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text. 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Linking Status And Eligibility For Welfare - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Linking Status And Eligibility For Welfare? Answer: Introduction The Australian Governments No Jab No Pay policy that applies at the national level is associated with full vaccination of children with the use of vaccines that have been listed on the National Immunization Program or NIP[1]. According to the policy, parents will be eligible to receive Family tax benefit Part A end of year supplement, child care rebate and child care benefit if their children who are below 20 years of age have been assessed to be fully immunized. No parent can object to the vaccinations and are mandatory for all in order to obtain the benefits[2]. The aim of such a policy was to reinforce the importance associated with the benefits of immunizations. Moreover, it was also associated with increasing and promoting public health, particularly the health of the children[3]. These benefits will be provided to only the citizens of Australia or those who hold a permanent visa, temporary visas or special category related visas. Moreover, the benefits will also be applicable for offshore humanitarians holding a permanent visa[4]. The immunization status of the children is determined by the assessment of the Australian Childhood Immunization Register or ACIR, which is connected with the Medicare services of the country[5]. This law was necessary due to the cases of child deaths below the age of 5 years resulting from various vaccine pr eventable diseases. Some of the vaccine preventable disease affecting the Australian children, thereby resulting in their deaths are influenza, invasive meningococcal infection, Pertusis, Pneumococcal septicaemia, meningititis and pneumonia[6]. Some regions of the Australian subcontinent like Woonona located in New South Wales and Broome located in Western Australia showed immunization rates of 99.5 and 99.2%, respectively. However, other regions like the central business district of Sydney and Burnwood located in New South Wales showed immunization rates of only 70.5 and 72.8%, respectively. These immunization rates were observed in the year 2015-2016[7]. Thus, the research question is whether No Jab No Pay policy follows the rules of informed consent and the associated challenges. The question stems from the fact that although this policy has increased the rate of immunization in the Australian sub-continent but still there are issues regarding the migrant or refugee populations and also the fact that it violates the right of informed consent[8]. Thus, this report provides a literature review and also provides a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the No Jab No Pay policy in order to come to a conclusion and also to address the research question. Literature Review This section consists of the review of the literatures dealing with immunization and the No Jab No Pay policy[9]. The most important problem associated with this legislation is the challenges associated with informed consent. Informed consent is associated with legal and ethical requirements involving human participants. Informed consent is associated with a statement of the procedure, duration, description of any risks associated with the procedure, description of benefits associated, information of remuneration or compensation if required and voluntary participation, which can even result in withdrawal from the practice without any subsequent penalties on the participants[10]. Some of the challenges of informed consent is associated with the presence of language barriers. Misunderstandings can result from inadequate or incorrect language translations. Individuals give consent without being fully aware of the procedure, which can result in severe consequences and even results in wit hdrawal. Other challenges of informed consent involve religious influences, false expectations, patient perceptions, research involving children, vulnerable groups of people, among others. Religious beliefs also play an important role in deciding whether to participate in the trial or not. Many times the methodology associated with the procedure results in conflicts due to the rules set by religion. False expectations arise due to previous historical evidences that have shown the inefficiencies of a particular program, which in turn results in patient refusal. Patient perceptions with respect to side effects or the occurrence of adverse events prevents patients from participating in research trials or vaccination programs. With respect to involvement of children, permissions are required to be obtained from parents or guardians. Vulnerable groups and people involve individuals who are unable to protect their interests and in turn results in difficulties in obtaining informed consent . These could include individuals like those with learning disabilities or individuals like refugees or migrants[11]. One of the most important vaccine preventable diseases that have been found to affect the Australian children is measles. Surveillance data from the Public Health Event Surveillance System revealed that within 2005-2014, 237 cases of measles had been reported in the state of Victoria. Among the affected children mostly were found to be unvaccinated. Records revealed that there was no details related to immunization or vaccination histories of the students. Due to the lack of immunization, the Australian Government with the aim to promote vaccination, provided incentive payments to the providers of immunization in order to identify and immunize the children who were overdue for vaccinations. Moreover, the No Jab No Pay policy brought about by the Australian Government will not provide any federal government assistance benefits or payments to the parents, whose children are unvaccinated or under vaccinated[12]. With the help of this policy the vaccination rates had increased in Austral ia. This policy accepts exemptions from vaccination only on medical grounds but not on religious or conscientious grounds[13]. During the 1990s, the Australian vaccination rates were very low and very few of the children had nationally recommended immunization coverage. During that time the federal government had issued a welfare incentive program. This welfare incentive program was refurbished in the year 2015 and was replaced by a new law, which was termed as the No Jab No Pay policy. The Australian families were eligible to receive federal benefits of up to 15,000 dollars per child per year depending on the status of immunization of the family members. Such benefits will not be applicable for those individuals, who do not participate in immunization programs or those whose children of age groups 1, 2 and 5 years old are not vaccinated by the recommended vaccines. The Australian Government had indicated a savings of 380 million dollars as a result of the implementation of the new law. Most of the savings were due to benefits which were not paid and it was estimated that 10,000 families would lose eligibili ty for obtaining payments. The Government revealed that with such a policy, 5738 unvaccinated children received vaccinations and 187,695 children who were under vaccinated had caught up with the vaccination schedules. Although favorable outcomes has resulted from the implementation of the policy but still immunization coverage has been found to be disproportionately low among welfare dependant families[14]. However, another study revealed that such policy based on the alliance of the state and the pharmaceutical companies are in direct violation to the principle of informed consent. The mandatory regime around the legislation thereby undermines the freedom of speech and also carries out implementations that silences the voice of criticism. With the No Jab No Pay policy, there is no question of consent that needs to be obtained from individuals as it is mandatory for all, which would otherwise result in exemption from much needed benefits, which are also their fundamental rights. According to the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights (UDBHR) (2005) which states, any preventative, diagnostic and therapeutic medical intervention is only to be carried out with the prior, free and informed consent of the person concerned, based on adequate information[15]. Proper education is the right of every children but with the No Jab No Pay policy, children will be prevented from a ttaining their basic rights if complete vaccination is not done. Moreover, with the lack of informed consent, mandatory vaccination can have ne4gative effects with respect to the health of the individuals, which in turn can have life long consequences or vaccine related deaths. Moreover, questions also arise of the efficacy of these pharmaceutical companies to determine the quality of the vaccines. Thus, rather than scrutinizing whether this policy will really benefit the individuals, such health policies have become highly politicized, where only profits and savings are being calculated rather than giving importance to the individual consent to obtain vaccination[16][17]. The No Jab No Pay policy requires the parents to enable their children of up to 19 years of age to participate in the immunization programs and other catch up programs[18]. According to this policy, the Government revealed that 508.3 million dollars will be saved in the next 5 years[19]. However, research studies have revealed that poor socio-economic status may be associated with non-vaccination or under vaccination of the children in Australia. National health performance data revealed that children who are below 5 years of age and belonging to rich suburbs located in the regions of Sydney and Melbourne and other affluent suburbs were fully vaccinated and were up date with their vaccination schedules[20]. Thus, it indicated that the immunization coverage was lower in the regions where the individuals lived in poor socio-economic conditions[21]. This in turn exposed the inherent inequity present in the newly established No Jab No Pay policy. This inequality is further contributed by the fact that financial penalty would be incurred by those who live at the lower end of the society that is the low socio-economic strata. Such individuals are in need of these financial benefits assistance and payments. Thus, apart from the challenges the policy brings with respect to informed consent, it also has other challenges like social inequity. A study was carried out in order to determine the childhood immunization coverage in Victoria by age and vaccine cohort[22]. The ACIR was analyzed and data was obtained of the immunization coverage in Victoria. Results obtained in the study revealed that in the age cohort of 12- less than 15 months, immunization coverage was found to be lowest in the area with the lowest socio-economic quintile score with respect to all vaccines. When rankings were carried out with respect to financial status using the IER score, immunization coverage was again found to be lowest in the previous socio-economic status quintiles in the case of both the 24- less than 27 month and 60 less than 63 month cohorts. Therefore, it indicated that financial constraints acted as a barrier to achieve high and far reaching degrees in immunization coverage. Moreover, it was also found that the proportion of the children in the lowest socio economic quintile who remained partially vaccinated were 20-50% higher than those children who were living in most advantaged areas. Additionally, it was also found that costs of care prevented 16% of Australians to undergo medical tests or visit a doctor. Various financial barriers to immunization coverage were determined, which were found to be transportation costs, lack of time from work and consultation costs. These financial barriers were found to be associated with the difficulty to access the healthcare services. Moreover, the study indicates that with the implementation of the No Jab No Pay policy, further hardships and financial burdens will be applied to the already disadvantaged population. The study also indicates the need to develop strategies that would help to address these financial barriers faced by the disadvantaged society belonging to the lower strata of the socio-economic ladder[23]. However, contradictory to the above findings it has been reported that many children with recorded objections in vaccinations or who have received either no vaccination or one vaccination belonged to the higher socio-economic strata with respect to economic resources as compared to the children living in poor socio-economic conditions. According to this study, wealthy individuals registers objections against immunizations more frequently than their financially disadvantaged counterparts[24]. These educated individuals unlike their poor counterparts belonging to the other end of the socio-economic strata question the efficacy of the vaccines with regards to safety and efficacy. This results in vaccination hesitancy. Thus, the No Jab No Pay policy ensures that such objections are not applicable. This is because the No Jab No Pay policy ensures tracking of the vaccine objections in Australia. However, without the use of informed consent, the No Jab No Pay policy raises questions with re gards to balancing of parental autonomy and medical paternalism with respect to healthcare provision for children[25]. Thus, the study questions the inequity issue due to the implementation of the policy. This is because individuals belonging to higher socio-economic status are not subjected to any forms of penalty for not carrying out complete immunization of their children or not vaccinating them at all. This is because they either do not claim for such child benefit schemes or even if they are exempted for not carrying out proper immunization of their children, they will not face any financial hardships. Moreover, the No Jab No Pay policy also affects the migrant families of Australia. Although the migrant families either have very low or no rates of objection from immunizations but they face various other barriers to immunization. One of the barriers were poor recording or absolutely no recording of the overseas or catch up vaccinations in the ACIR. This resulted in unfair exemp tion of the migrant families from payment benefits[26]. Such inequities faced by the migrant families needs to be addressed by the Government, particularly the policy makers and even the politicians in order to evaluate the success of the No Jab No Pay policy. Thus, the study revealed that access issues and financial problems are some of the barriers that prevent vaccine uptakes. However, the study also revealed lower vaccine uptakes on the other side of the socio economic strata that is the educated and skilled individuals. Thus, the study warrants investigation on the impact of socio economic status on the vaccine uptake of individuals and also urges the need of immunization policies that would maximize the rates of immunization among individuals belonging to both the higher and lower strata of the socio-economic ladder. Moreover, it also addresses the need to develop tools that would monitor the trends in vaccine objections and in turn will help to develop effective and timely in terventions[27]. The legislation prevents objections that are based on either conscience or religion. But medical objections can be acceptable only on the grounds that such medical objections be verified by general practitioners. Vaccination exemptions can be administered on grounds of contradictions like anaphylaxis or immunosuppression. However, general practitioners verify such exemptions. But the most pressing problem is associated with migrant or refugee children. The migrant or refugee families face difficulties in gaining eligibility for obtaining Centrelink payments due to lack of updated records about their vaccinations or immunizations in the ACIR. Due to the lack of such updated records they lose their chances of getting the benefits even if they have fully immunized their children. Moreover, increased pressure on the vaccination providers with respect to clarifying the vaccination histories of the refugee families, updating the ACIRs and providing catch up vaccinations for the migrant families. Thus, such increase in pressure results in the vaccination providers being unprepared with inadequate resources in order to meet the growing demands of the refugee or migrant population of Australia. Moreover, due to the mobility of the refugee families the refugee children obtain their vaccinations from different regions and also from different healthcare sectors[28]. Thus, such preparation of time consuming reports prevents the submission and eventual registration of the data in the ACIR. Moreover, some of the healthcare providers believe that calculating the missed vaccination schedules for the migrant children is very difficult as compared to the indigenous children. Further another concern with the new legislation is that the refugee children do not need hepatitis i mmunizations due to their natural immunity resulting from infection or unrecorded overseas vaccination. According to previous Australian data, migrants or refugees from East Africa or the children belonging to the Karen refugees have immunity to or are infected by Hepatitis B infections[29]. Thus, such children do not need Hepatitis B vaccinations and are provided with other catch up vaccines. But the problem is that such children are not regarded as completely immunized in the ACIR. As a result they require medical exemptions verified by general practitioners but the problem they face is that they have changed their general practitioners as a result of their mobility, which results in proper recording of their vaccination histories, thereby resulting in reluctance on the part of the practitioners to exempt them from the vaccinations[30]. Thus, keeping in mind the above discussed facts, the new legislation has given rise to various challenges with respect to informed consent. Firstly, informed consent ensures that participants can refuse any medical treatment or vaccination without being subjected to any form of penalty. However, this legislation imposes penalties in the form of exemption from benefits like tax payments and child care benefits. Moreover, in order to obtain informed consent, individuals are not forced to participate in medication trials or programs, however, this legislation forces individuals to participate in the vaccination programs. Moreover, informed consent also allows individuals to refuse treatment based on religious preferences. However, this legislation also prevents refusals based on religion. Parents have the fundamental right of taking decisions on behalf of their children and if children are above 7 years old, then their consent is also required. However, the No Jab No Pay legislation not only prevents the parents from executing their rights of taking decisions on whether their children are going to get vaccinated or not but it also does not obtain consent from the children. Refusal results in not only exemption from tax benefits but also exemption from child care benefits, which acts as a barrier for children to obtain their primary education[31]. The legislation also is a challenge with respect to the migrant and the refugee families of Australia as well as those belonging to the lower rung of the socio-economic ladder. Not only they are incapable of understanding the facts associated with the vaccination program but also cannot access such programs. As a result, obtaining informed consent from them is challenging, which results in their exemption from various benefits[32][33]. Moreover, obtaining informed consent from educated people is also challenging because of the fact they have information about previous histories associated with adverse events due to vaccin ations and also because they have perceptions that prevent them to participate in such programs[34]. Discussion Thus, it can be said that the legislation although provides benefits and increases the immunization coverage but still there are various loopholes in the legislation, which needs to be addressed. These arguments about the loopholes of the legislation have been proven by various evidences. According to Dr. Margie Danchin of the Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, the No Jab No Pay policy was introduced with little thought for the complexities of minority groups such as migrants, who were almost always pro-vaccination[35]. According to Dr. Danchin although such migrant families want to remain up to date with their vaccinations but lack of access to healthcare providers act as barriers. Moreover, she also reveals the difficulties in maintaining an accurate Australian Immunization Register or AIR, which prevents the migrants to receive Centrelink payments. Moreover, according to Jane Gunn, who is a professor of general practice at the University of Melbourne the general practitioners a nd nurses play a key role in updating the immunization data in the AIR but due to the time consuming process, such records are not completely updated. According to her this highlights the problem of duplication in our health care system and the need for more integrated medical records and information-sharing. Moreover, the legislation also adds to the bureaucratic burden as the migrant children who have natural immunity require referrals for exemptions from practitioners. According to Louis Newman, who is a professor of Psychiatry at the Royal Womens Hospital and the University of Melbourne, special provisions are required within the legislation in order to address the delay in payments and support to the migrant families who are in immediate need of such financial services[36]. Moreover, the Government aims to save millions of dollars at the expense of the health of innocent migrant children by preventing them from getting benefits and access to education. Additionally, the parents who object to the vaccination reforms face a welfare damage of 15,000 dollars, the biosecurity controls force individuals to get vaccinated, presence of vaccine vigilantes who vaccinate without parental consent, among other[37]. Additionally, Section 3.5 of the Australian Code of Conduct states that consent is a persons voluntary decision about medical care that is made with knowledge and understanding of the benefits and risks involved[38]. Thus, the legislation also conf licts with this code of conduct as it threatens individuals to carry out mandatory immunizations otherwise bear the risk of losing benefits with respect to finances and child care. Moreover, the children also lose their fundamental right of obtaining education. Section 10, subsection C, protects the rights of the patients to give full and free consent for a particular medical treatment. But the legislation will limit the right of the individuals to give full consent without being forced or blackmailed[39]. The legislation, excludes valid contradictions like family histories with respect to adverse reactions of vaccines, convulsions, eczema, asthma, atopy, neurological conditions and also natural immunity. The doctors are told to ignore these contradictions while giving vaccinations. In such context, the role of obtaining informed or valid consent comes into play[40]. Moreover, according to the Australian Immunization Handbook, valid consent is defined as the voluntary agreement of a patient or an individual to a particular procedure only after obtaining reliable information with respect to risks and benefits associated with it[41]. Consent is therefore needed before vaccination after determining the any potential risks of medical conditions associated with it. Moreover, the right to vaccinate children lies fundamentally with the parent and the Government or the doctors have no right to implement such harsh rules that can have severe consequences in the future with respect to vaccine re actions that can be debilitating along with the burden of finances due to lack of Government compensations[42]. Thus, specific reforms are necessary in the legislation that would carry out vaccination based on valid consent and should not take away the legal rights of the citizens to obtain the benefits that would ensure a bright future for their children with respect to health and education. Moreover, the legislation should also be reformed keeping in mind the benefits of the migrants and those belonging to the lower socio-economic strata. Conclusion This report provides an analysis of the No Jab No Pay reforms or legislation that has been implemented in Australia. According to this legislation, individuals will get tax and child care benefits only if their children below the age of 20 years are up to date with their vaccination schedules. Although this legislation has resulted in increased vaccination rates and coverage but it does not provide benefits to those who do not carry out complete i9immunization of their children. Moreover, due to the various loopholes of the legislation, the individuals belonging to the lower socio-economic strata and the migrant or refugee children are also unfairly affected. Due to the lack of their vaccination records, they are deprived from the benefits of which they are in urgent need. Moreover, it also violates the legal rights of the citizens with regards to valid consent for administration of services. Thus, the country wants to make a large amount of savings at the cost of the fundamental rig hts of the citizens, especially the financially deprived and migrant populations. Thus, various reforms to the legislation are necessary in order to maintain the fundamental rights of the citizens. Thus, it can be concluded that the No Jab No Pay legislation although beneficial to some but overall its beneficence is not universally distributed to all, thereby giving rise to hardships in the form of exemption from benefits and basic rights of children to obtain proper education. Reference List ABC News, "Federal Government Pushes to Ban Unvaccinated Children From Childcare Centres", 2017 https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-12/government-pushes-to-ban-unvaccinated-children-from-childcare/834704 Australian Medical Association,Govt Banks on Massive Savings From No Jab No Pay Policy(2018) Australian Medical Association https://ama.com.au/ausmed/govt-banks-massive-savings-no-jab-no-pay-policy Barbaro, Bianca and Julia M.L. Brotherton, "Assessing HPV Vaccine Coverage In Australia By Geography And Socioeconomic Status: Are We Protecting Those Most At Risk?" (2014) 38(5)Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health Beard, Frank H et al, "Trends And Patterns In Vaccination Objection, Australia, 20022013" (2016) 204(7)The Medical Journal of Australia Block, K. et al, "Addressing Ethical And Methodological Challenges In Research With Refugee-Background Young People: Reflections From The Field" (2012) 26(1)Journal of Refugee Studies Fielding, James E., Bruce Bolam and Margie H. 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Australian Paralegal Foundation(2018) Para-legal.org.au https://para-legal.org.au/no-jab-no-payplay-challenge/ Parliament.vic.gov.au,Cite A Website - Cite This For Me(2018) Parliament.vic.gov.au https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/sarc/Alert_Digests/submissions/public_health_wellbeing_no_jab_no_play/01_Australian_Vaccination-skeptics_Network_Inc.pdf Paxton, Georgia A et al, "No Jab, No Pay No Planning For Migrant Children" (2016) 205(7)The Medical Journal of Australia Paxton, Georgia A. et al, "Post-Arrival Health Screening In Karen Refugees In Australia" (2012) 7(5)PLoS ONE Portal.unesco.org,Universal Declaration on Bioethics And Human Rights: UNESCO(2018) Portal.unesco.org https://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=31058URL_DO=DO_TOPICURL_SECTION=201.html Rawlinson, Paddy, "Immunity And Impunity: Corruption In The State-Pharma Nexus" (2017) 6(4)International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy Refugeehealthnetwork.org.au,Cite A Website - Cite This For Me(2018) Refugeehealthnetwork.org.au https://refugeehealthnetwork.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Report_2016_September_Victorian-Refugee-Health-Network_Immunisation-Needs-Analysis_FINAL-for-website-1.pdf Sahealth.sa.gov.au,Cite A Website - Cite This For Me(2018) Sahealth.sa.gov.au https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/ec0d23004282f52a8cadccc1a92b467d/STTP+September+2017+final++.pdf?MOD=AJPERESCACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-ec0d23004282f52a8cadccc1a92b467d-lVlIQ-S Schofield, Deborah J, Rupendra N Shrestha and Emily J Callander, "Access To General Practitioner Services Amongst Underserved Australians: A Microsimulation Study" (2012) 10(1)Human Resources for Health Social Services Legislation Amendment (No Jab, No Pay) Bill 20152015 The Australian Immunisation Handbook(National Health Medical Research Council, 10th ed, 2015) The Conversation, "No Jab, No Pay Disadvantages Migrant Children", 2016 https://theconversation.com/no-jab-no-pay-disadvantages-migrant-children-66387 The New York Times, "No Jab, No Play: How Australia Is Handling The Vaccination Debate", 2018 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/24/world/australia/vaccination-no-jab-play-pay.html Vector.amsa.org.au,Anti-Vaccination: Separating Fact From Fiction(2018) Vector https://vector.amsa.org.au/2017/06/07/228/ Yang and Studdert, Linking Status and Eligibility for Welfare and Benefits Payments: The Australian No Jab No Pay Legislation (2017) 317(8) JAMA, 8